A Summary Of Utilitarianism Philosophy Essay

A Summary Of Utilitarianism Philosophy Essay Utilitarianism, also known as the English common sense philosophy dominated the Western world during most of the nineteenth century. Utilitarianism is a normative ethical theory that places the seed of right and wrong solely on the outcomes (consequences) of choosing one action/policy over other actions/policies, hence also sometimes referred to as the Consequentialism. The history of this theory dates back to its true pioneer Jeremy Bentham ( 1748-1832) who gave rise to a new concept in hedonism: The Social Hedonism which was quite different from the Hedonistic doctrines of Aristipppus and Epicurus who are considered to be the fathers of Hedonistic school of thought. Bentham ; the common-sense British thinker is largely held responsible for the shift from egoistic (individualistic) hedonism to the Universalistic( social ) hedonism. He declared in his book Introduction to the Principles and morals and Legislation that all mankind is ruled by two basic masters; namely PAIN and PLEAS URE and that all human race is busy in the so-called rat-race of the pursuit of pleasure and the disapproval of pain.He also asserts that good can be equated with pleasure and evil with pain. Here comes in the big question that How should pleasures be graded as far as preference is concerned? Whether one should go for short-term and intense pleasures or long-term and mild pleasure take precedence over the former. He therefore came up with a detailed outline of principles regarding the preferences of pleasures in his Hedonic Calculus. According to Benthams calculus, he emphasized the significance of seven circumstances in order to determine the value of any action, hence presented a criteria for the preference of pleasures influenced by following major factors: Intensity: of the pleasure or pain that results Duration: of either of the two Certainity: The confirmation that pleasant event will be occurring. Promptness : The nearness of the pleasant event. Fecundity: Its ability to reproduce( lead to) more pleasure. Purity: freedom from either present or future. Extent: characterized by the number of people affected by the action John Stuart Mill(1806-1873) adjusted the more hedonistic tendencies in Benthams philosophy by emphasizing that it is not infact the quantity of pleasure, but the quality of happiness that is central to utilitarianism. He further argued that pleasure couldnt be quantified as stated by Bentham and can only be measured in terms of quality only. Mill advocates his rationality of ideas in the following famous words: It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better Socrates disstatisfied than a fool satisfied The implification of this advancement by Mill lead to a belief that the calculus is unreasonable (there is a distinction between higher and lower pleasures). According to Mill, utilitarianism now refers to the Greatest Happiness Principle GHP. it seeks to promote the capability of achieving happiness (higher pleasures) for the maximum number of people. The Maxim holds as such: Greatest happiness for the greater number Act and Rule Utilitarianism The principle of utility can either either be applied to PARTICULAR ACTIONS or GENERAL RULES. The former is called act-utilitarianism and the latter is called rule-utilitarianism. Act-utilitarianism The principle of utility is applied directly to each alternative act in a situation of choice. The right act is then defined as the one which brings about the best results( good or pleasure) (or the least amount of bad results/bad or harm). Rule-utilitarianism The principle of utility is used to determine the validity of rules of conduct (moral principles). A rule, like promise-keeping is established by keeping in view the consequences of the rule. This can be achieved by imagining a society/world in which people broke promises at will and a world in which promises were kept. Right and wrong are then defined as following or breaking those rules. Some criticisms of this position point out that if the Rules take into account more and more exceptions, Rule Utilitarianism collapses into Act Utilitarianism. More general criticisms of this view argue that it is possible to generate unjust rules according to the principle of utility. For example, slavery in Greece might be right if it led to an overall achievement of cultivated happiness at the expense of some mistreated individuals Critiques on the Utilitarian Theory: The first and foremost critique grounds its claim in the definition of the notion of happiness itself. According to various thinkers Happiness is a pretty relative term. What makes one person happy does not necessarily arouses the same sentiments in another individual. The practicality of the theory is challenged by saying that its not possible to decide whos happy and who is not? There is no justification of sacrificing the benefits of the minority in order to make the majority happy, no matter what. This simply undermines the notion of justice Utilitarianism has no universal set of rules on to which morality is based The sharpest criticism of Utilitarianism comes from its most celebrated critic: Kant. Kants Ethical Formalism holds that the rightness or wrongness of an act is an inherent quality which is independent of everything-time, place, circumstances, so on and so forth. Furthermore , this inherent or absolute quality of an act is independent of any results which follow from it, hence refuting CONSEQUENTIALISM altogether. Critiques on the Act Utilitarian Theory Criticisms of this view point to the difficulty of attaining a full knowledge and certainty of the consequences of our actions. According to some thinkers the consequences of acts cannot be predicted accurately and therefore refutes the argument of establishment of the rightness or wrongness of an act to begin with. One act doesnt have a single consequence. To the contrary, it leads to a multitude of consequences which is usually described as the Ripple Effect, hereby rendering the evaluation of an act as good or bad by looking at its consequences simply impossible. It is possible to justify immoral acts using Act Utilitarianism which is not justified and acceptable on any grounds. Critiques on the Rule Utilitarian Theory: Some criticisms of this position point out that if the Rules take into account more and more exceptions, Rule Utilitarianism collapses into Act Utilitarianism. More general criticisms of this view argue that it is possible to generate unjust rules according to the principle of utility. For example, slavery in Greece might be right if it led to an overall achievement of cultivated happiness at the expense of some mistreated individuals SUMMARY: KANTIANISM Immanuel Kant (1724 1804) stands as a milestone in the history of Western philosophy. Kants theory can be categorized as a deonotological because according to him, actions are not assessed to be morally permissible on the basis of consequences they produce, but rather on the persons will therefore his actions are based on duty and not consequences( henceforth refuting Utilitarianism right at the start). Monistic deontology as subjected by Kantianism is by far more consistent of a theory and can be universally applied to all beings. It is more plausible because even if the consequences of performing an action arent necessarily the best, the agent is still obligated to perform the action because it is their duty to do so. Therefore, ethically and morally they are doing the right thing.Kants theory revolves around Duty and Obligation. It is absolute since the morality of an action takes no regard of the situation it is in. Moral duty Kant said that we all experience an innate moral duty. The existence of the conscience and feelings of guilt and shame tell us when we violate this moral duty. He believed that our moral duty could be revealed to us through reason, objectively. His theory was based solely on duty. He said that to act morally is to perform ones duty, and ones duty is to obey the innate moral laws Moral duty Kant said that we all experience an innate moral duty. The existence of the conscience and feelings of guilt and shame tell us when we violate this moral duty. He believed that our moral duty could be revealed to us through reason, objectively. His theory was based solely on duty. He said that to act morally is to perform ones duty, and ones duty is to obey the innate moral laws. He believed that we are constantly in a battle with our inclinations our raw wants and desires. We should not act out of love or compassion.He preached the most celebrated view of Duty for Dutys Sake Kant said that its was not our duty to do what is impossible for us to do. For Kant, the fact that we ought to do something means that it is logically possible to do ought implies can. Moral statements are prescriptive; they prescribe an action. If ought implies can then the statement, I ought to do x, implies that I can do x. Kant said that we all aim to reach an ultimate end call the supreme good, the summum bonum a state in which human virtue and happiness are united. However, since it is impossible to reach this state in one lifetime, he deduced that we have immortal souls to succeed. Thus, Kant believed in an afterlife where there is a possibility of reaching the supreme good. For an afterlife to exists, Kant said God must exist to aid eschatological justice. For him, God was necessary for morality not the other way round he rejected all classical notions of theism. Moral statements Kant believed that there were two types of statement possible. First, a priori analytic statements such as 1 +1 = 2 are knowable without external research and contains predicate within it. However, statements that are a posteriori synthetic such as, Jack is a butler are knowable only by empirical examination it may be true or false. Kant contended that moral statements were a priori synthetic. We cannot prove what someone should do just by seeing so moral statements are a priori. However, moral statements may or may not be true, thus they are synthetic. Therefore, Kant concluded that moral statements where knowable only through reason since they are a priori and that there must be a method by which to verify whether the statement is true or false. Good will and duty Kant argues that the highest form of good is good will. To have good will is to perform ones duty. To do ones duty is to perform actions which are morally required and to avoid those actions which are morally forbidden. Kant said that we should perform our duty because it is our duty and for no other reason. To perform an action out of desire for any self indulgent consequences is not a morally good action. Duty is good in itself. Kant believed that we should act out of duty and not emotion. A human action isnt morally good because we feel its good, or because it is in our own self interest. Even if duty demanded the same action, but it was done for a motive such as compassion, the act would be a good act, but the person would not be moral (virtuous) for choosing it. Kant is said to have devised a system of ethics based on reason and not intuition. A moral person must be a rational being. Being good means having a good will. A good will is when I do my duty for the sake of that duty. I do my duty because it is right, and for no other reason. But what does it mean to act out of duty? Kant explained that to act out of duty is to perform actions which are morally obligatory and not to perform those that are forbidden. The categorical imperative: It is the basis of Kants moral system and may be formulated as follows: Act as if the maxim of your actions were to become through your will a general Natural law The categorical imperative helps us to know which actions are obligatory and which are forbidden. Hypothetical imperatives are conditional: If I want x then I must do y. These imperatives are not moral. For Kant, the only moral imperatives were categorical: I ought to do x, with no reference to desires or needs. There are three main formulations of the categorical imperatives. 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The universal law -The ability to universalize: All moral statements should be general laws, which apply to everyone under any circumstances. There should be no occasion under which an exception is made. 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Treat humans as ends in themselves -Respect: Kant argues that you should never treat people as a means to some end. People should always be treated as ends in themselves. This promotes equality. 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Act as if you live in a kingdom of ends -Autonomy: Kant assumed that all rational agents were able to deduce whether an argument was moral or not through reason alone and so, all rational humans should be able to conclude the same moral laws. Kant sought to create a framework by which one could discover which moral statements were true and which were false. Immorality thus involves a violation of the CI and is thereby irrational. Other philosophers, such as Locke and Hobbes, had also argued that moral requirements are based on standards of rationality. However, these standards were either desire-based instrumental principles of rationality or based on sui generis rational intuitions Freedom Kant believed that we are free to make rational choices. Reason is what distinguishes us from animals. We have to be free to do our duty. But if we cant be free then we cannot truly be moral agents. Ought no longer implies can. Critiques on the KantinianTheory: Kants refusal to allow any exceptions to a maxim is incompatible with modern politics. In war, the sacrifice of the few for the many is necessary. Kant does not allow this. Kant cannot distinguish between conflicting duties. Kants concept of universalisability encounters problems. How similar do two moral dilemmas have to be to be covered by the same maxim? Critics object that the categorical imperative, as circumscribing the form of morality, is often too ambiguous, even empty of application Kants refusal to allow and exceptions to a maxim is incompatible with modern politics. In war, the sacrifice of the few for the many is necessary. Kant does not allow this. Critics of Kants approach claim that his Categorical Imperative does not contain within it a way to resolve conflicts of duties. Lying is wrong can be interpreted as Never lie and thus Universal Principles can harden into Absolute Principles

Explore the ways in which Faulks uses nature within the novel

Alternatively, he might inferring that; the world is in peace when nature is allowed to flourish and It's in disharmony during war, where birds are chased away by the treating sounds Of guns and the hostile weather conditions which makes the birds stop singing, this creates an unnatural environment. The way Faults uses nature during the soldiers' time in the front is a complete paradox to the way he uses nature during Stephens visit at the English countryside when he's on leave.During Stephens time in England, Faults uses nature in an optimistic manner to convey a sense of exemption and alleviation. This is evident in the nine ‘the air had a feeling of purity as though it had never been breathed'. The air was ‘pure' because this is an environment where conflict is not as sever and atrocious; where nature was not being constantly disturbed by the petrifying sounds of guns and being intoxicated by gas. Unlike in France where there was not enough oxygen' provided by nature f or the soldiers to survive .The lack of oxygen shows how much man has damaged the environment and the restricting of oxygen to man shows that nature has given up on them ; this enforces that the arrival of the soldier's death is near. It's almost like the soldiers are betraying nature by damaging it while it's playing a motherly role to them. Faults is trying to convey the idea life is futile without nature and humans bring annihilation within themselves. Faults uses nature in the line ‘overhanging trees' to create a graphic imagery of dead bodies overlapping each other.This adds emphasis on the multitude of lives that were lost during the World War one, too many men died that their bodies became part of the landscape, they became part of nature. The powerful adjective ‘overhanging' mimics the soldiers' feelings as depressed ND melancholic due to the strain and tediousness as they had to strive under horrific conditions. On the other hand, the reader creates an unusual i magery of trees ‘overhanging' each other, which is unnatural. This represents a dyspepsia environment which shows that war changed nature.Faults wants the reader to understand the untold horrors of war, which creates a subtle anti war message throughout the novel. Alternatively, the adjective ‘overhanging', might infer that the trees were growing rapidly in the soldiers' favor to provide oxygen in order for them to survive. This shows that nature as on their side, although they were the ones damaging it. Here the reader begins to despite and oppose war as they start to notice the selfishness in humanity. Nature was being destroyed and a multitude number of innocent people were dying just because the government was eager to gain power.They had the power to stop this catastrophe but because they didn't want to embarrass or ‘show weakness' by surrendering . They had the decency to carry on despite how the conflict was destroying the earth. Similarly, the idea of natur e keeping the soldiers alive is conveyed in Siegfried Caisson's poem France' when he describes the forest as ‘radiant forest'. The powerful adjective ‘radiant', might infer that the forest gave the soldiers energy and provided them with heat in order to keep them warm while they were fighting; this reinforces a motherly nature as the ‘radiant forest' comforted them even though they were near death.Here Swanson uses nature in an optimistic manner to decrease the cruelty of war by not creating a sinister atmosphere. Faults makes the reader understand the brutality of war by using powerful adjectives to create a ghastly imagery. This is evident in the nine ‘Shattered flesh that lay in sinking stinking shell holes in beet crop soil' The powerful phrase ‘shattered', emphasis on the brutality of war and the multitude of violence. It creates a powerful image of mutilated body parts and rotting and decaying dead bodies decomposing in the soil.The adjective â₠¬Ëœstinking' emphasis on the foul smell of the dead bodies which damaged the nature by polluting the air. Faults uses graphic violent imagery to demonstrate the horrors of war. Additionally, the fact that the dead bodies are sinking the soil conveys the idea that the soldiers die but nature remains tagging or it gets damaged but it grows back again, but once a human being is dead they can never be brought back to life.As the reader is reading these they start understanding the impacts war had on nature which makes them unaffected by the euphoria of war. Nature is used positively , in the line ‘a lark was singing in the unharmed air above him' According to Biblical references , a ‘lark' is a symbol of hope, happiness and good fortune; which might mean that during the battle God was on the soldiers' side, their faith never betrayed them. The soldiers were just a sacrifice to God in order for everyone to have redeem. This is supported by the powerful phrase ‘unharmed air above him'.

The Catcher In The Rye by J. D. Salinger and Looking For...

Throughout history, authors of young adult literature are oftentimes forced to incorporate the perils of young adulthood into their plots, characters, and conflicts. Growing up in America is an experience unlike no other. Today, American young adults are part of a large generation called the Millenials, who are considered the most educated in American history. They are more open minded, progressive, successful, and technological. However, it is not all sunshine and rainbows for these young Americans who oftentimes have outstanding debt and job prospects that are unacceptably dim. In multiple ways, the reality for a young Millenial in America parallels the life of a young adult born during the Silent Generation, a generation characterized†¦show more content†¦Holden has an internal struggle with his emotions and his perspective of the real world. Holden views the world around him as a faà §ade. Throughout the novel, he repeatedly refers to the people in his world as â€Å"p honies.† Holden isolates himself from the rest of the world and, oftentimes, his thoughts are full of self-hatred. In Holden’s narrative, he discusses the death of his brother Allie many times and it becomes clear to the reader that one of the biggest causes of Holden’s estranged views of the world is his inability to deal with his brother’s demise. While Holden doesn’t necessarily blame himself, he regrets not spending time with his brother. He says: â€Å"I started talking, sort of out loud, to Allie. I do that sometimes when I get very depressed. I keep telling him to go home and get his bike and meet me in front of Bobby Fallon’s house †¦ Allie heard us talking about [going to shoot BB guns at Lake Sedebego], and he wanted to go, and I wouldn’t let him. I told him he was a child. So once in a while, now, when I get very depressed, I keep saying to him, ‘Okay, go get your bike and meet me in front of Bobby’s house. Hurry up’† (Salinger, 99). Holden projects his frustration about his brother’s death on the world as a way of expressing his sadness and loneliness. The second half of John Green’s soul-searching tale, Looking ForShow MoreRelatedLiterary Criticism : The Free Encyclopedia 7351 Words   |  30 Pagesmore loosely used to describe coming-of-age films and related works in other genres. Examples[edit] Precursors[edit] Hayy ibn Yaqdhan, by Ibn Tufail (12th century)[18] Parzival, by Wolfram von Eschenbach (early 13th century) Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (late 14th century) Lazarillo de Tormes (1554)[19] 17th century[edit] Simplicius Simplicissimus, by Hans Jakob Christoffel von Grimmelshausen (1668) The Adventures of Telemachus, by Franà §ois Fà ©nelon (1699) 18th century[edit] The History of

Income Distribution And Distribution Income System

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